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Libro – Wikipedia.Prueba – Foro – En Bici Ecuador

 

I libri sono pertanto opere letterarie. Google ha stimato che al sono stati stampati approssimativamente milioni di titoli diversi. La parola italiana libro deriva dal latino liber. Il vocabolo originariamente significava anche ” corteccia “, ma visto che era un materiale usato per scrivere testi in libro scribuntur litterae , Plauto , in seguito per estensione la parola ha assunto il significato di ” opera letteraria “.

Se ne deduce che le prime scritture delle lingue indoeuropee possano esser state intagliate su legno di faggio. La scrittura, un sistema di segni durevoli che permette di trasmettere e conservare le informazioni, ha cominciato a svilupparsi tra il VII e il IV millennio a. Quando i sistemi di scrittura vennero inventati, furono utilizzati quei materiali che permettevano la registrazione di informazioni sotto forma scritta: pietra , argilla , corteccia d’albero, lamiere di metallo.

La scrittura alfabetica emerse in Egitto circa 5 anni fa. Gli antichi Egizi erano soliti scrivere sul papiro , una pianta coltivata lungo il fiume Nilo. Inizialmente i termini non erano separati l’uno dall’altro scriptura continua e non c’era punteggiatura.

I testi venivano scritti da destra a sinistra, da sinistra a destra, e anche in modo che le linee alternate si leggessero in direzioni opposte. Le tavolette di cera erano assicelle di legno ricoperte da uno strato abbastanza spesso di cera che veniva incisa da uno stilo. Avevano il vantaggio di essere riutilizzabili: la cera poteva essere fusa e riformare una “pagina bianca”. Erano utilizzate anche le cortecce di albero, come per esempio quelle della Tilia , e altri materiali consimili. La parola greca per papiro come materiale di scrittura biblion e libro biblos proviene dal porto fenicio di Biblo , da dove si esportava il papiro verso la Grecia.

Tomus fu usato dai latini con lo stesso significato di volumen vedi sotto anche la spiegazione di Isidoro di Siviglia. Che fossero fatti di papiro, pergamena o carta, i rotoli furono la forma libraria dominante della cultura ellenistica , romana , cinese ed ebraica. Gli autori cristiani potrebbero anche aver voluto distinguere i loro scritti dai testi pagani scritti su rotoli.

La storia del libro continua a svilupparsi con la graduale transizione dal rotolo al codex , spostandosi dal Vicino Oriente del II – II millennio a. Fino al II secolo d. All’arrivo del Medioevo , circa mezzo millennio dopo, i codici – di foggia e costruzione in tutto simili al libro moderno – rimpiazzarono il rotolo e furono composti principalmente di pergamena.

Quattro son troppi? Anche nei suoi distici, Marziale continua a citare il codex: un anno prima del suddetto, una raccolta di distici viene pubblicata con lo scopo di accompagnare donativi. Questa mole composta da numerosi fogli contiene quindici libri poetici del Nasone». Dal II secolo a.

Nel mondo antico non godette di molta fortuna a causa del prezzo elevato rispetto a quello del papiro. Il libro in forma di rotolo consisteva in fogli preparati da fibre di papiro phylire disposte in uno strato orizzontale lo strato che poi riceveva la scrittura sovrapposto ad uno strato verticale la faccia opposta. La scrittura era effettuata su colonne, generalmente sul lato del papiro che presentava le fibre orizzontali. Non si hanno molte testimonianze sui rotoli di pergamena tuttavia la loro forma era simile a quella dei libri in papiro.

Gli inchiostri neri utilizzati erano a base di nerofumo e gomma arabica. Dal II secolo d. La vecchia forma libraria a rotolo scompare in ambito librario. In forma notevolmente differente permane invece in ambito archivistico.

Questo mezzo, permettendo l’accelerazione della produzione delle copie di testi contribuisce alla diffusione del libro e della cultura. Altri suoi distici rivelano che tra i regali fatti da Marziale c’erano copie di Virgilio , di Cicerone e Livio. Le parole di Marziale danno la distinta impressione che tali edizioni fossero qualcosa di recentemente introdotto. Sono stati rinvenuti “taccuini” contenenti fino a dieci tavolette.

Nel tempo, furono anche disponibili modelli di lusso fatti con tavolette di avorio invece che di legno. Ai romani va il merito di aver compiuto questo passo essenziale, e devono averlo fatto alcuni decenni prima della fine del I secolo d. Il grande vantaggio che offrivano rispetto ai rolli era la capienza, vantaggio che sorgeva dal fatto che la facciata esterna del rotolo era lasciata in bianco, vuota.

Il codice invece aveva scritte entrambe le facciate di ogni pagina, come in un libro moderno. La prima pagina porta il volto del poeta. I codici di cui parlava erano fatti di pergamena ; nei distici che accompagnavano il regalo di una copia di Omero , per esempio, Marziale la descrive come fatta di “cuoio con molte pieghe”.

Ma copie erano anche fatte di fogli di papiro. Quando i greci ed i romani disponevano solo del rotolo per scrivere libri, si preferiva usare il papiro piuttosto che la pergamena. I ritrovamenti egiziani ci permettono di tracciare il graduale rimpiazzo del rotolo da parte del codice. Fece la sua comparsa in Egitto non molto dopo il tempo di Marziale, nel II secolo d. Il suo debutto fu modesto. A tutt’oggi sono stati rinvenuti 1.

Verso il d. I ritrovamenti egiziani gettano luce anche sulla transizione del codex dal papiro alla pergamena. Sebbene gli undici codici della Bibbia datati in quel secolo fossero papiracei, esistono circa 18 codici dello stesso secolo con scritti pagani e quattro di questi sono in pergamena. Non ne scegliemmo alcuno, ma ne raccogliemmo altri otto per i quali gli diedi dracme in conto.

Il codex tanto apprezzato da Marziale aveva quindi fatto molta strada da Roma. Nel terzo secolo, quando tali codici divennero alquanto diffusi, quelli di pergamena iniziarono ad essere popolari. In breve, anche in Egitto , la fonte mondiale del papiro , il codice di pergamena occupava una notevole quota di mercato. Sono tutti di pergamena, edizioni eleganti, scritti in elaborata calligrafia su sottili fogli di pergamena.

Per tali edizioni di lusso il papiro era certamente inadatto. In almeno un’area, la giurisprudenza romana , il codex di pergamena veniva prodotto sia in edizioni economiche che in quelle di lusso.

La caduta dell’Impero romano nel V secolo d. Il papiro divenne difficile da reperire a causa della mancanza di contatti con l’ Antico Egitto e la pergamena , che per secoli era stata tenuta in secondo piano, divenne il materiale di scrittura principale. I monasteri continuarono la tradizione scritturale latina dell’ Impero romano d’Occidente. La tradizione e lo stile dell’ Impero romano predominavano ancora, ma gradualmente emerse la cultura del libro medievale.

I monaci irlandesi introdussero la spaziatura tra le parole nel VII secolo. L’innovazione fu poi adottata anche nei Paesi neolatini come l’Italia , anche se non divenne comune prima del XII secolo. Si ritiene che l’inserimento di spazi tra le parole abbia favorito il passaggio dalla lettura semi-vocalizzata a quella silenziosa.

Prima dell’invenzione e della diffusione del torchio tipografico , quasi tutti i libri venivano copiati a mano, il che li rendeva costosi e relativamente rari. I piccoli monasteri di solito possedevano al massimo qualche decina di libri, forse qualche centinaio quelli di medie dimensioni. Il processo della produzione di un libro era lungo e laborioso. Infine, il libro veniva rilegato dal rilegatore. Esistono testi scritti in rosso o addirittura in oro, e diversi colori venivano utilizzati per le miniature.

A volte la pergamena era tutta di colore viola e il testo vi era scritto in oro o argento per esempio, il Codex Argenteus. Per tutto l’Alto Medioevo i libri furono copiati prevalentemente nei monasteri, uno alla volta.

Il sistema venne gestito da corporazioni laiche di cartolai , che produssero sia materiale religioso che profano. Questi libri furono chiamati libri catenati. Vedi illustrazione a margine. L’ ebraismo ha mantenuto in vita l’arte dello scriba fino ad oggi.

Anche gli arabi produssero e rilegarono libri durante il periodo medievale islamico , sviluppando tecniche avanzate di calligrafia araba , miniatura e legatoria. Col metodo di controllo, solo “gli autori potevano autorizzare le copie, e questo veniva fatto in riunioni pubbliche, in cui il copista leggeva il testo ad alta voce in presenza dell’autore, il quale poi la certificava come precisa”.

In xilografia , un’immagine a bassorilievo di una pagina intera veniva intagliata su tavolette di legno, inchiostrata e usata per stampare le copie di quella pagina.

Questo metodo ebbe origine in Cina , durante la Dinastia Han prima del a. I monaci o altri che le scrivevano, venivano pagati profumatamente. I primi libri stampati, i singoli fogli e le immagini che furono creati prima del in Europa, sono noti come incunaboli. Folio 14 recto del Vergilius romanus che contiene un ritratto dell’autore Virgilio. Da notare la libreria capsa , il leggio ed il testo scritto senza spazi in capitale libraria. Leggio con libri catenati , Biblioteca Malatestiana di Cesena.

Incunabolo del XV secolo. Si noti la copertina lavorata, le borchie d’angolo e i morsetti. Insegnamenti scelti di saggi buddisti , il primo libro stampato con caratteri metallici mobili, Le macchine da stampa a vapore diventarono popolari nel XIX secolo.

Queste macchine potevano stampare 1 fogli l’ora, ma i tipografi erano in grado di impostare solo 2 lettere l’ora. Le macchine tipografiche monotipo e linotipo furono introdotte verso la fine del XIX secolo. Hart , la prima biblioteca di versioni elettroniche liberamente riproducibili di libri stampati.

I libri a stampa sono prodotti stampando ciascuna imposizione tipografica su un foglio di carta. Le varie segnature vengono rilegate per ottenere il volume.

L’apertura delle pagine, specialmente nelle edizioni in brossura , era di solito lasciata al lettore fino agli anni sessanta del XX secolo , mentre ora le segnature vengono rifilate direttamente dalla tipografia. Nei libri antichi il formato dipende dal numero di piegature che il foglio subisce e, quindi, dal numero di carte e pagine stampate sul foglio. Le “carte di guardia”, o risguardi, o sguardie, sono le carte di apertura e chiusura del libro vero e proprio, che collegano materialmente il corpo del libro alla coperta o legatura.

Non facendo parte delle segnature , non sono mai contati come pagine.

 

Database Riptek

 

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Shop now. Brand : marco bonazzasimone pozzolistefano werner villa. Description undefined Full description not available. Autodesk Revit Architecture Guida alla progettazione BIM? The part in Star Wars where Yoda says, There is do, or do not. Honesty is the best policy. Interestingly enough, this saying was initially intended as a compliment.

The perimeter exterior volumes were enabled by using several nicks, notches, and other angular shapes at the building perimeter. A fourth phase elaborated the postmodern architecture. During this phase, several articulated buildings were constructed. The common features of these buildings were Also several structural schemes were used since the geometric building forms did allow it. Around , was also known as an aesthetic reaction to the cubism period, evolved in three main stages.

First, the roof element of the building was being used receiving more architectural attention than the prevoius design, that of a flat roof. There were several configurations, from a pyramid roof, a dome, or any combination of these.

The second stage represented entrances to the building as an effort to give it also an identity. The third stage focuses to the building forms articulations by no longer idetifing sufficiently a building.

The fifth phaseprovided a modification of the shapes of the building in terms of energy conservation. In this context, the building interior spaces are being seen as a whole, in accordance with the space influenced by the light. During this phase that was a great awareness from the building designers, to consider the solar controls outside and inside the building and to find possibilities to not depend depend totally on mechanical heating, cooling and electric light.

As well as for the lighting design, there were identified various light sources outside the building, distancing in this way from the previous evaluated scenarios of an electrical engineering standpoint.

After elaborating the developing stages of high rise architecture in North America, it is also of a great importance to investigate the development of structural systems. As stated above, ther were some stages where the architectural trends do allow more stuctural configurations because they offer a variaty of building geometries and forms. Hovewer, it worth mentioning the the above appriciations were corresponded to high-rise buildings. On contrary, in the low-rise building these assumptions have a lower pronounce effect.

So, taking the example of the pyramids or the early 10story high-rises of the s. In terms of lateral load resistance, they required little attention. The high-rise buildings tend to be more narrow in plan so they were of limited width. This aspect was reflected in the structural traces of the building plan. The interior columns were putted at a relatively close spacing of m. The structural frame of the building was mainly refered to a rigid frame composed by deep beams conected to the the columns.

In order to obtain the required stability of the scheme, the frame was often supplemented by cross braces throughout the building perimeter. A passive support in the building stability, was added also by the masonry infills and the exterior cladding. It is interesting to invistigate more on architectural consideration over different time period. Distancing from the pervious prismatic forms, a special attention was given to the top of the building.

Generally the top of the building was differentiated from the rest of the building form. But this consideration ocurred gradually. So the buildings were identified by those forms. A good example of this is the 48story high, cited as American version of the pyramid, the Transamerica Corporation in San Francisco. The form of the building was reached using sloped columns.

Transamerica Corporation, San Francisco The main structural system corresponding to the third stage of high-rise architectural development was the tube system, which was very suitable to prismatic, square and rectangular shapes.

Generally the building maintained the same form for almost the entire height. The tube system, on the other hand, seemed to very appropriate in terms of rapid construction of the buildings. Following the first consideration over the top o fthe building, it was logical to consider also the entracies of the buildings, so not caring only for the city skyline but also for its bases. This period was combined with the structural logicconceived by Fazlur Khan.

Fazlur Khan an american citizen with an origin from Bangladesh did reveal a very interesting structural concept on tubular systems, as well as he was known also as the father of the tube structure.

Khan stated that while moving most of the columns to the outside of the building, in its perimeter, it is logical that also it is moved also in the perimeter, in this sense, the lateral He further explained that this action, tends to be more efficient and economical. A comparative analysis he does mentioning beams in I-profile cross section. So, he explained that with moving mass away from its center, the moment of inertia, increases, like in I-beams.

The tube system, was either used with deep exterior spandrels or as an exterior braced tube, known as diagrid system also. In the case of headquarters, the John Hancock Tower in Chicago, the diagonals were expressed on the building facade, but in the Citicorp Building in Manhattan, they were hidden by a glass wall.

Citicorp Building, Manhattan Then a special attention was paid to details. The architects tended to use many articulated forms. The high-rise architecture was represented by this trend. There were several building examples that do reflect in their facade technological progress by showing their structural elements. The aim was not expressing the structure but rather their building skin to reflect the architectural expression.

Satisfying all the above requirements, it was obvious that in many cases there were used two or more structural systems for the entire building height, and not just one single system. In the case of slicing and dicing architectural forms, the engineers had to combine different structural schemes, by cutting a brace somewhere or using a partial tube somewhere else, and so on. The main problem they faced in this regard, was to ensure the overall continuity of the loads transimition path.

The current trends in architecture require for several structural schemes to be studied and tested throughout the enginerring softwares to decide on the selection of the final scheme. The reasons behind this choice are linked with the concept that in nowadays there is no a distinguish architectural style that it is use.

The designers use to experiment with the most unimaginable shapes, so every building by it structural scheme, use to have an unique response to the particular architectural volumetric form of the building. As it is often quoted in engineering theories, for any architectural project no matter how complicated it is, the structural solution always exists.

The only problem in this analysis lies in the fact of the total cost of the building. Today, the structural engineers aim towards obtaining the most rational solutions for a building structural system combined with elegant structural elements in their cross section dimensions, to reduce the overall weight of the building and consequently its cost.

In the late 19th century, it is known the fact that the construction of many multi-storey buildinghad the economic background. The main purpose was to increase the rentable surface by having more office spaces thus maximizing the rents of these offices. The natural light on the other hand was very important key in this regard.

The offices should meet this condition. In this regard, this process was further spread by the new technologies that helped in improvingclearly in the application of new construction materials.

The heavy masonry walls with small openings were replaced with steel frame structure. The new system used contributed in reducing cross section dimensions of the structural members at the perimeter of the buildings. As a consequence, the larger openings obtained, the more natural light was introduced within the building interior spaces. Usually the transparent glasses were used for the windows, whilebrick or terra cottawere used for the steel structures cladding.

Unlike the traditional masonry walls, the steel frame system carry onlu the self weight and the lateral loads. Graph 2. Main structural systems used in high-rises from 19th cent until nowadays source:the author 2. There have been many attemptions to elaborate the main structural schemes that did foloow the architectural styles of the 20th century and from the literature research some of their concepts will be cited as below. The author Beedle et al.

On the other hand, the authors Ali and Armstrong, ; Curtis, in their research paper, reveal on Late Modernism period and its influence on the main structural systems used in those years, by stated that. However, in Structural Expressionism, aesthetic quality has been redefined to emphasize the role of new structural systems and innovative building materials. In the same line with the other architectural style, the International Style and its formalism, in the building facade design was being applied directly the structural element.

The expose structural system in building facade did for sure follow the architectural expression of the whole building. This was the moment when for the first time was used the concept of structural expressionism. Its roots were in the structural material of steel and concrete that had the potential to creatediverse forms, in regards to buildings, bridges, and many other construction objects. A good example of the above concepts is the designer Pier Luigi Nervi who has designed many particular structures.

His designs include many diverse forms such as vaulted forms, or forms dispalying the loads transmission path, large-spanning design, etc. William Le Baron Jenney and John Wellborn Root were also two different architects from Chicago, that reveal interesting forms in their multi-storey buildings.

Ali, analyzes much more the figure of Kahn and his new structural concept. He quickly realised that with the increasing heights of buildings, the status quo of structural systems was no longer acceptable. Khan, , , ; Ali, Additionally, it would allow the structure to respond to lateral loads, providing the most efficient performance while consuming the least amount of physical materials.

There have been also distinguished three main architectural styles from the modern thought in architecture that do enhance structure expressionism. Talking about Folding Architecture which is also known as Origami, High-Tech Architecture and Deconstruvism which have all in common the same elements. They do refer to a total building mass reduction, more attention to interior spaces by creating at the same time visible structure.

So at the end, a giving building represents technology advancement as an achievement of the new era, representing the building process and manifesting also its transparence.

So in this sequence, is also important to mention and refer to main architects and practioners of each style. As above beginning with the first style, it should be mention the main architect of Origami who is M. And then refering to High-Tech architects who are B.

Graham, F. Foster, M. Hopkins, R. Piano, S. Calatrava and R. And for Deconstructivism style the main practioners are P. Eisenman, F. Gehry, Zaha Hadid, R. Koolhaas, D. Libeskind, B. Tschumi etc. Industrial Revolution. Chronology of periods that lead to main architectural styles that expose structure systems at the facades of buildings source: the author.

This is used to be a technique, which is simple explained by a paper folding. The Folding technique is widely applied, as well as in architectural design. Many researchers using papers try to create different three-dimensional forms and got inspired for their design. Therefore, this technique help to obtain more intuitive solutions for architectural design. The distinctive stimulation in architectural form design, help also the engineer to better elaborate the structureof these constructions by properly understand the loadcarrying capabilitiesand the diagram of the stress forces inside the system.

Gallery of Muqarnas Tower by SOM, Saudi Arabia The base unit of a folded plate is assembled from a thin steel reinforced concrete or steel surface that is bent to increase its strength and span like a beam.

Folded plates resist the primary bending stresses across their inclined section with peak stress at the ridge and valley of the folds. The distribution of load through the depth of the steel-reinforced concrete or steel section embeds the folded plate with an affective property of pleating and arching that remains consistent within any space it defines.

Folded plates add diffusion to modify the acoustical affective property of their geometry, which can be curved or flat. The rate and scale of the folds can vary, changing the overall subdivision of the section. The deeper the folds, the more structural depth they gain, thus the more resistance they offer to bending moments. As stated by Farshid in her book the function of form, when the base unit of a folded plate is intertwined with external desires, its affective properties are multiplied.

As a result, in addition to pleating and arching, a folded plate can transmit other optical affects, including flatness, wrapping, vaulting, corrugation, tubularity and asymmetry.

The acoustical affects are diffusion and specularity. It dated from the late s and it represented a preference for lightweight materials. The technological advancements in construction made possible the visual structure in the building facades. The most representative architects of this movement were Norman Foster and Richard Rogers. From the years of the s, they used to design buildings by exposing theirstructures.

A good example of this architectural language is the HSBC building. Mies van der Rohe sought structural expression as an architectural objective. The Architectural styles of 21th centurycombines with Postmodern Movement. In this period, a special attention was paid to the strict structural logic of facades. They represented irregular forms, such as polychromatic and flamboyant forms. Therefore, following the concept of Fazlur Khan, the structural support systems of multi-storey buildingswas moved to the exterior of the building, known also as Core – Outrigger system.

In , Moon wrote on revival of Structural Expressionism, manifested in two major trends: innovative bracing systems and advanced diagrid systems. These two systems often provide equal spacing, balance, rational composition and harmony and manifest simplicity which is a key design principle of Modernism and Structural expressionism.

The HSBC Hong Kong headquarters Deconstruction Architecture The Deconstruction Architecture is the design language that interfere with the building skin, creating non regular shapes while often the visual appearance seemed to be characterized by unpredictability and controlled by chaos.

As a movement of postmodern architecture, Deconstructivism appeared in the s. Architects represented this style are distinguished in their work by whose work the impression of the fragmentation of the design building. Besides fragmentation, there seems in their design to not follow the concept of a symmetry building, continuity or harmony. In the past, technology was very visible. Presented in a visible way. Technology is something that I hide, you have to look for it, you do not see it, you can not see it.

It is an element to be used and exploited in an indirect way. Before, I used to imagine an architecture that nobody could touch, impossible to grasp and hold. This object in the real. This interests me in this moment Some of the common questions getting even now a days is What is the difference between engineering and architecture. It is really not an easy answer and maybe it should not be.

Some people say engineering are focussed on safety and equations whether architects are focussed on aesthetics, engineers tend to be logical, architects tend to be creative and somehow all these statements are partially true but rather it is quite so simple.

There are two very interesting statements made on this issue by two wellknown profesionist, an architect and a structural engineer. The greatness of. A common denominator for these structures is that the same person was in charge of the design and construction. Many of the constructors were artists and mathematicians, using the concepts of geometry and physics to figure out the shape of the structures. The roles of architects and engineers have changed from having one Master Builder in charge of the both the artistic and technical part of the design, to having a clear distinction between the two disciplines.

Today, the continuing specialization of their disciplines has caused a growing gap in the understanding between architects and engineers. The architect and the engineer, working on the same project, will use different measures and be concerned with different objectives while heading for their goal. Development of new technology has made it possible to enhance the synergy between the architect and engineer, permitting the design to become more efficient and complex.

An example of this is parametric design, which is a flexible tool that allows for effortless changes to the design without deleting and redrawing.

It is highly beneficial compared to the traditional CAD-software where the geometry is more time consuming to change. The model is generated in an environment where the geometry is parametrically defined and assigned properties that are either fixed constrains or variables parameters. The designer can modify the parameters, and the model will adjust accordingly.

This opportunity of freely alternating between and comparing options allows for a more dynamic design. In traditional methods of design, the structural engineer would optimise the structure mainly after the design is finalised. This work flow leads to a distinction between the architect and engineer.

This enables the structuralengineer to contribute in the design process by performing structural optimisation from an early stage. As a result, this could advance the constructability and thus reduce time and cost without compromising the structural performance and architectural shape. It must however be mentioned that parametric design It is up to the architect and engineer to make sure their priorities are shared and that they have a common understanding for the perfect structure to be realized.

In structural engineering practice, as stated above while describing the main structural system of the five phases on the development of high-rise architecture, one key element is the concept of low cost design. Conceving the requirement, is very important for design team to elaborate within them and to participate in the conceptional stages of the project. Therefore it is seems to be of interest to explore the idea of different structural systems.

It is obvious that every type of them impact the architecture volumetric aspect of high-rise building. He once stated, If you want a thing done well, do it yourself. And get this. Wow, this piece of writing is pleasant, my sister is analyzing these kinds of things, so I am going to convey her. We Tech From Zero team is ensuring that technology is one of the most significant aspects of our daily lifestyle and have designed this techfromzero.

 
 

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